Adhyāropa-Apavāda

An ancient philosophical method

Jan 15, 2024

Advaita vedānta is a classical system of thought found in Indian philosophy. Its fundamental premise is that pure consciousness (Brahman) is all that exists, the phenomenal world (jagat) is illusory, and the individual consciousness (jīva) is no different from the universal consciousness. One of the manners in which this conclusion is reached is by a method employed by the philosophers of this tradition since time immemorial. This method is called adhyāropa-apavāda.

As stated in the commentary written by Ādi Śaṅkarācārya on the 13th stanza of the 13th chapter of the Bhagavad Gītā, “तथा हि सम्प्रदायविदां वचनम् - ‘अध्यारोपापवादाभ्यां निष्प्रपञ्चं प्रपञ्च्यते’ इति (tathā hi sampradāyavidām vacanam - ‘adhyāropāpavādābhyām niṣprapañcam prapañcyate’ iti).”1 This means, “Thus as is well known, there is a saying of the knowers of tradition, ‘Brahman is described with the help of superimposition (adhyāropa) and its refutation (apavāda).’”

In addition, the Vedāntasāra - an introductory text to advaita vedānta - says something similar: “स गुरुः परमकृपयाध्यारोपापवादन्यायेनैनमुपदिशति (sa guruḥ paramakṛpayādhyāropā-pavādanyāyenainamupadiśati).”2 It translates to, “Such a teacher through his infinite grace instructs the pupil by the method of refutation (apavāda) of the erroneous imputation (adhyāropa).”

Adhyāropa is the process of deliberately superimposing untruth over truth. One might wonder as to why this is done, as the entire framework of advaita vedānta is soteriological (concerned with liberation/salvation), with an emphasis on the grasping of truth. The crux of adhyāropa is that we have already misunderstood the nature of reality as a result of ajñāna, or ignorance.

We have - by default - been unable to see the truth and have thus unknowingly superimposed untruth over it. We do this by mistaking reality for what it isn’t; transient, changing, and sorrowful. Adhyāropa begins the process of deconstructing what we take to be reality by analyzing it intently. By analyzing that which is apparently real, we see the chinks in its armour and thereby grasp what is real.

The Vedāntasāra defines adhyāropa as such: “असर्पभूतायां रज्जौ सर्पारोपवत् वस्तुनि अवस्त्वारोपः - अध्यारोपः (asarpabhūtāyām rajjau sarpāropavat vastuni avastvāropaḥ - adhyāropaḥ).”3 This means, “Adhyāropa is the superimposition of the unreal on the real, like the false perception of a snake in the rope which is not a snake.” This superimposition serves the purpose of providing a platform for the student to enter into the knowledge of spirituality. Thus, the entire base of the Vedantic knowledge is formed on the basis of slowly bringing the student into an understanding of reality.

The concepts of God, soul, the world, creation, rebirth, rituals, devotion, and so on are considered as artifacts of religion - merely a preliminary stage in spirituality. This preliminary stage is adhyāropa - necessary superimposition. It’s required in order to condition the mind of the seeker.

Brahman is attributeless and impossible to explain by language or any other means. This, however, makes brahmavidyā (knowledge of brahman) impossible to teach or convey. In order to impart knowledge of it, brahman is given attributes. This is the process of adhyāropa - the superimposition of untruth upon truth. In order to cognize brahman, it is necessary to bring it into view with some sort of qualification, even though it really cannot be qualified in any way. By attributing the attributeless, we can acknowledge its existence. This is crucial. The transcendental must be made mundane in order to even be recognizable. Adhyāropa makes it possible for the unknown to be recognized and then cognized.

In acknowledging the existence of brahman, we have established it as an entity. However, now the issue arises that we must declutter our understanding of it as an entity. Brahman is defined as being beyond space, time, and objectivity. That is to say, it cannot be conceived of spatially, as either large or small. This is indicated by the contradictions that scriptures present in describing brahman; ‘अणोरणीयान्महतो महीयानात्माऽस्य जन्तोर्निहितो गुहायाम् (aṇoraṇīyānmahato mahīyānā’sya jantornihito guhāyām).’4 This quote from the Kaṭha Upaniṣad states that the ātman (the Self, brahman) is smaller than the smallest and yet larger than the largest, hidden in the hearts of all living creatures. The import is that brahman is beyond spatial understanding.

Brahman is also atemporal, beyond time and its effects. It is referred to as trikālātīta, or that which is beyond all three states of time (the past, present, and future). The Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad says, “...यच्चान्यत् त्रिकालातीतं तदप्योङ्कार एव (yaccānyat trikālātītam tadpyoṅkāra eva).”5 This translates to “And what is beyond these three states of the world of time, – that too, verily, is aum (brahman).”

In addition, it is beyond objectivity. The concepts of subjectivity and objectivity appear only in duality, in an opposition between consciousness and the objects that appear in it. It is not possible to objectify brahman. However, in the process of adhyāropa, we need to temporarily objectify brahman in order to even be able to conceive of it. Now that it’s accepted that there is such an existence, apavāda is required to clear our misconceptions of that existence.

The Vedāntasāra defines apavāda as such: “अपवादो नाम रज्जुविवर्तस्य सर्पस्य रज्जमात्रत्ववद्-वस्तुविवर्तस्स्यावस्तुनोऽज्ञानादेः प्रपञ्चस्य वस्तुमात्रत्वम् (apavādo nāma rajjuvivartasya sarpasya rajjumātratvavad-vastuvivartasyāvastuno’ajñānādeḥ prapañcasya vastumātratvam).”6 This means, “As a snake falsely perceived in a rope is ultimately found out to be nothing but the rope; similarly the world of unreal things, beginning with ignorance, superimposed upon the Reality, is realized, at the end, to be nothing but brahman. This is known as refutation (apavāda).”

The work of apavāda is to enable the cognition of brahman after it is recognized. By this, I mean that brahman has to be recognized first, by means of adhyāropa. This recognition takes place by assigning familiarity to brahman - this we have seen in the concepts of God, etc. However, this recognition is only so because it is familiarizing that which is unknown to us without actually understanding what it is in itself. I shall demonstrate what I mean by an example.

Suppose Person A is pointing out their sibling Person B to us at a gathering. At first, we glean the characteristics of Person B through their similarities and differences from Person A. However, Person B is an entire being with their own identity - who they are is not actually dependent on Person A. The more we get to know Person B, we realize who they are in their own right. At first, we recognized Person B based on who Person A is, but in time, we cognized who Person B really is, thus bringing a fuller, comprehensive view of our understanding of Person B.

Similarly, brahman is recognized by us (via adhyāropa) using the concepts we already possess. By the process of apavāda, we cognize brahman’s true nature as being beyond all mental categories and concepts.

The final mantra of the Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad has this to say on the inexpressible nature of brahman: “अमात्रश्चतुर्थोऽव्यवहार्यः प्रपञ्चोपशमः शिवोऽद्वैत एवमोङ्कार आत्मैव संविशत्यात्मनाऽऽत्मानं य एवं वेद (amātraścaturtho’vyvahāryaḥ prapañcopaśamaḥ śivo’dvaita evamoṅkāra ātmaiva samviśatyātmanā’’tmānam ya evam veda).”7 This means, “That which has no parts, incomprehensible, the cessation of all phenomena, all bliss and non-dual aum, is the fourth and verily the same as the ātman (self, brahman). He who knows this merges his self in the Self.”

Nothing more can be spoken of brahman, of consciousness, of reality. Ludwig Wittgenstein, the famed Austrian philosopher of the 20th century, wrote “Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent.” This is such a case. The method of adhyāropa-apavāda exists solely to guide the seeker through the preliminary stages of understanding only for them to learn that all their learnings are to be discarded as one discards a ladder having been climbed. All the concepts learnt at first are to be discarded as one’s understanding grows until at last, the inexpressible experience of brahman enables the seeker to transcend all that they once thought they knew and see reality as it is.

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